What are the Difference between Primary Data and Secondary Data

S.L	Primary Data	Secondary Data
1	Primary data are always original as it is collected by the investigator.	Secondary data lacks originality; the investigator makes use of the data collected by other agencies.
2	The suitability of the primary data will be positive because it has been systematically collected.	Secondary data may or may not suit the objects of inquiry.
3	Primary data are expensive and time-consuming.	Secondary data is relatively cheaper.
4	Extra precautions are not required.	It is used with great care and caution.
5	Primary data are in the shape of raw materials.	Secondary data are usually in the shape of readymade products.
6	Possibility of personal prejudice.	Possibility of the lesser degree of personal prejudice.

Socioeconomic Issues of Small Ethnic Minority

Bangladesh did not exist as a distinct geographic and ethnic unity until independence. The region has a successive part of Indian empires which are dominated by British rule. 

1. Culture: There are many tribes in Bangladesh and each tribe has its own unique culture. Some tribes may even have cultural distinctions within their different clans. But some traits are generally common among most tribes. For instance, originally most tribes are animists. 
2. Celebration of Festivals: Most tribes have a festival that includes dancing and singing. Most of these festivals take place after the consumption of alcoholic beverages. A very popular festival of the Manipuris is a type of Gopi dance celebrating the love of Radha and Krishna. Manipuri and Santals celebrate Holi when they drench each other with color. Drums, cymbals, and flutes provide the music. These festivals are celebrated on the seasons of the year for a whole month, starting with midnight of the Holi, the full moon, Manipuri dance also celebrates rice harvest through singing contests. The maghs spend the first three days of the maghi year singing, dancing, and drinking. 
3. Tribal Language: Bangladesh has 30 tribes living in different parts of the country. 2-3 tribal people speak their own languages. The well-known tribal languages are Chakma, Garo, Khasia, Magh, Manipuri, Munda, and Santali. Other tribal language is kachhari, Kuki, Tipra, inalpahadi, mikir, shadri and Hajang. 
4. Housing Condition: All hill tribes build bamboo houses on raised platforms. They use ladders that are withdrawn at night so that wild animals cannot climb up. Maghs build houses on the flat ground. Oraons built their houses with plaster made of mud and cow dung. Usually, their houses are made of earth, with thatched roofs, but they also build houses with fences made of shola.
5. Religious Belief: All other tribes have no specific religion except Garos. These tribes regard the ancient rites, beliefs, and customs of their religion. Most of the Goro are Christian but they observed their own tribal rites. The periods of the full moon and the dark of the moon are of special significance to the organs, Manipuris, and Buddhist tribes. Many religious and cultural rites take place during the full moon.
6. Concept of Creation: According to Garus, a woman named “Nastun Dantu” created the earth from soil brought up. Monipuri believed that the world was composed entirely of water then the great Guru “Shidara” made 9 gods and 7 goddesses. The gods threw soil from the heavens and the goddesses danced on the soil and flattened it to create the earth.
7. Farm Work: Some tribes regard the earth as mother. So they worship the earth mother before sowing crops. Orauns believe that produces crops. They observe of ceremonies where the earth is treated as menstruating or pregnant women. Some tribes give the land special food, as is the custom in the case of a pregnant woman. Garo, Manipuries, santals, and a few other tribe men and women work together in fields. The men clear the jungles while the women as symbols of fertility sow seeds and do the transplanting. All tribes celebrate seed planting and crop harvesting in their own colorful ways. Young men and women sing and recite rhymes when they carry the crops home.
8. Marriage: There are similarities as well as dissimilarities in the wedding rites of different tribes. Most tribal marriage is based on love matches, with the tribal couple getting to know each other before marriage. Oraons do not allow child marriage or weddings during the months of Chaitra, Bhadra, and Paus. Grooms have to pay a bride price. Pre-wedding ceremonies include seeing a bride, Panchini, and gaye halud. Women on both sides sing nuptial songs on the day of the wedding. They put up colorful wedding pandals. The groom and the bride daub each other’s forehead with vermilion as women of both parties.
9. Dress: The women of many other tribes commonly wear dhutis and their women wear saris. There were times when some tribes used to wear tree leaves to cover the lower part of the body. Lower class Garos were negated or tiny pieces of cloth. Satal dresses are called panchi, Panchatat, and matha. The main dress of Chakmas is the lungi, worn with a shirt. Their women wear a red and black sarong, called pindhan, plus a blouse called silum. Magh women cover their bodies with a thami with a full-sleeved blouse.
10. Ornaments and Cosmetics: There is very little variety in the ornaments that tribal women wear. Santal and oraon women wear ornaments on their hands, feet nose, ears, and neck. Oraon women peek up their hair on the head and were a tikli on their forehead. Ckama women were bungles and also coin earrings and necklaces. Garo women do up their hair in buns which they adorn with flowers.  Magha women use herbal powder or wood paste to lighten their faces.
11. Food and Drink: The tribal eat everything except their totems. The Garos do not eat cats as the cat is their totem. Maghs, Chakmas, and khasia do not eat beef and Garos do not drink milk. Magh and Chakma men and women are found smoking. Their favorite dishes are those that are sour and are made of rotten prawns. Oraons eat rats, eels, potatoes, and khesari pulse. Alcohol made of fermented rice is every tribe’s favorite drink. 
12. Social Rites: In material tribes, men do not inherit property. Men are neglected in their mother’s homes as well as in the houses of their wives. Among the Garos after a mother’s death, the daughters do not bear any responsibility for their father. Among khashias, the daughters must fulfill that responsibility. The chief of the tribes is called Raja. If a couple has pre-marital sex it is obligatory for them to marry each other. Oraons give goat milk or mothers milk to a newborn to drink, and others give honey. The new mother gives timbering water to drink. Most tribes build a tinny fence around the house to protect their mother and newborn from evil spirits. Garos avoid giving a baby an attractive name in order to avoid the evil eye.
13. Disposing of the Death: Tribal people sacrifice animals and weep to propitiate their dead so that their angry souls do not create trouble for the living. There was a time when they sacrifices human beings to appease the spirit of death. Maghs and Chakma cremate their dead body two or three days after death. A priest’s body is kept up for two or three months. Manipuri keeps the dying person outside the house, on a banana leaf. Earlier Manipuris used to bury their dead. But now they bury the adolescent’s body and cremate the bodies of older persons. After disposing of the body the pill bearers take a bath and dry their hands by holding them above a fire before entering their house. The family members of the dead person eat vegetables for twelve days and milk and banana for two days.

Socioeconomic and Political Issues of Small Ethnic Group in Bangladesh

The socioeconomic and political situation of ethnic people has become one of the most researched topics among the sociologists and anthropologist of recent times. This study focuses on the socioeconomic condition of ethnic people living in the Chittagong hill Tracts area of Bangladesh. Bangladesh is a land of more than 45 tribal groups. These ethnic people are living in both plain lands and the hill areas.

Socioeconomic Condition of Ethnic Group

Barkat et al., characterized the CHT is one of the most vulnerable because of its income and employment opportunities, poverty, housing, health, water, sanitation, education and inter-community confidence. Dhamai commented that the main problems of ethnic people are land dispossession, limited access to education and other social service and discrimination from the part of the ethnic people. Now discuss the various aspects of social and economic problems of ethnic groups.

A. Economic Problems of the Ethnic People in the CHT: As the CHT is a hills area; the opportunities for diverse kinds of occupation are very limited. The people of cultivation and agriculture are also dependent mainly on the primitive techniques and technologies. A survey of 400 households in the CHT area identified the following as the main occupation of the households of the ethnic people in CHT.

Agriculture	64%
Business	8.5%
Service/ professional	7.8%
Agricultural Labor	12.5%
Tenant farmers	2.5%
Fishing	4.8%

From this survey it can be identified that the main attribute of the ethnic economy in the CHT is agriculture. The main form of cultivation is Swidden/slash and Busn cultivation local ethnic language this cultivation is called Jum. This social form of cultivation is common in several hill areas of different parts of the world. The hill dweller cut a good amount of trees and burns them to clear the land of cultivation. They produce several kinds of crops on that land. They produce rice, maize, millet, cotton singer, melon and some others. This thousands of bear old cultivation tradition and is the main source of sustenance for their ethnic people. It has been found that because hill area is facing huge environmental damage. Ecology is at risk, moreover, the land are becoming infertile. Because of burning process, the land becomes incapable of producing crops after this it has been done a few times. As a result, new land must be found for cultivation. It results in greater environmental damage. The status of entrepreneurship among the ethnic people of CHT is poor. Though there are many industries that are contributing to the economy of CHT, the control of these industries is completely in the hands of other people.

B. Problems Arising from Land-disposes and Migration: Land dispossession is one of the main problems of the ethnic people in Bangladesh. In most cases, lands of these people are taken away without their consent. In many cases, this dispossession is done in the name of development. In 1960, then Pakistan government built the kaptai hydraeuetric project on the river of karnafuli and as a result the land of ethnic people were flooded and they had to migrate to other places including Myanmar and India later, many times the government has taken land from the ethnic people in name of creating resort and protected areas, building national park and Eco parks and even for the establishment of military bases.

C. Problem of Education Facilities: The situation of education is also vulnerable in the CHT religion of Bangladesh. As these ethnic people mainly live in relatively remote areas of the country, the lack the basic infrastructure needed and in many areas they are neglected from the mainstream support of the government. The main problem with commenting on the educational situation is that there is a lack of information.

According to Mullah, Parveen and Ahsanullah-

It was found that literacy rate in CHT is lower than the national literacy rate and seven out of ten women in CHT are illiterate. The children literacy rate of tour ethnic groups is depicted 

Chakma	36.20%
Marman	26.60%
Mro	2.90%
Tripura	18.50%

According to Dhami “The most important limitation of the education system is that the ethnic children hence to study in Bengali which is not their mother tongue. In many cases, the ethnic children face learning difficulties and then get dropped out.

D. Problem of Health Facilities: Though in Bangladesh many health and welfare services are provided by both government agencies and the NGO’s in hill area. There serviced are not that much available like those in the plain areas sultan identified the following main health problems prevailing in the CHT-

• The poor health status is an underlying factor for its very low participate in economic development.
• There are government health care centers and private clinics but in many cases these are inaccessible as the transports are irregular and costly. In many cases, these people depend on the traditional healers. 
• The most common disease are malaria, diarrhea, acute respiratory tracts infections malnutrition and poor pregnancy.
• Infant mortality is higher than the national figure. In 2007 the child mortality rate for the nation was 52 in every 1000, whereas in the CHT this was 61 in every 1000. The main reason for this is the lack of knowledge.
• Waterborne disease, basic same and hygiene remain as the most common problems in the CHT.

E. Problems of Discrimination Violation of Human Right: Ethnic people face discrimination in different aspects of their lives. They are not given a chance to get involved in many development decisions even those are related to them. This discrimination is mainly practiced by the minority who are the ethnic majority in Bangladesh at is seen that as these ethnic people can rarely participate in the national decisions that affect them. They are slowly and steadily losing their language, culture, customers and music. In many cases, the culture of the ethnic people is considered as second rate. Though the government of Bangladesh has a policy to maintain a quota system in case of the employment of the ethnic people in governmental jobs and admission into government institutions. Discrimination is also practiced in giving them business licenses. As a result, the economic condition of these people is always vulnerable. Political issues of ethnic people in Bangladesh. The central problem of political issues is widespread concerns in many counties about the political integration of migrants and their descendants---

• Low election turnout in many countries.
• Low identification with mainstream parties conversely.
• Riots and Protest.
• Home-grown terrorism in Bangladesh 

Importance to the study of ethnic minorities

1. Voting patterns are very different from those of minority group.
2. Influences on vote also seem to be different.
3. Wider social justice and practical concerns about interaction of minorities and their political response.

Political issues focus on 

1. Registration.
2. Turnout.
3. Vote choice.
4. Other forms of political participate.
5. Trust in parliament.
6. Satisfaction with democracy.
7. Sense of Bangladeshi identity.

Natural Resource Management in Bangladesh

Natural resources to indigenous peoples include that forest agricultural areas and rivers and coastal areas, in which land is central and often understood to encompass all natural resources collectively. The traditional communities have a close relationship to land and resources and see themselves as a part of the whole ecosystem.

Natural resources are significant not only as a means of production but also as part of indigenous peoples spiritual and cultural traditions, central to their identity as peoples.

Indigenous knowledge, innovations and practices on natural resource management are little understood by outsiders. They incorporate a keen awareness of the environment, an appreciation for conservation and continuity, encourages sustainable innovation, and places the long term wellbeing of the community as the focus of all activities.

Natural resource management involves both physical and spiritual realms and is easily embraced by every indigenous person in their daily activities such that it has become a way of life for the community. Indigenous people believe that the balance between the spiritual and physical realms will determine the condition of the universe and the immediate environment including that of the people. Indigenous resource management system are closely linked with the other indigenous social, cultural, spiritual, economic, governance, juridical, health technological and learning system.

The indigenous resource management systems as a serious issue that stems from:

1. Lack of understanding by the state of indigenous resource management.
2. Lack of recognition official of traditional administration.
3. Conservation ideas which do not recognize other systems of resource management. Particularly those which are considered “non-scientific”.
4. The pursuit by states of profits, modernization and development paradigm that is in conflict with indigenous resource management.

Laws and policies on natural resource management: Management of natural resources is administered by the following:-

1. Government Departments or Agencies: Natural resources are compartmentalized and are under the jurisdiction of specific government departments. In many countries federal constitution accords them substantial powers over land use and natural resource management. As every state is independent under the constitution, federal legislation in most causes is not binding on the states. So the government departments managing natural resources directly under the state. In the other countries, these departments are centralized and under the direct control of the central government.
2. District/provincial council/Body and sub district council/body: The implementation and monitoring of natural resource management laws, are decentralized to councils at the district or provincial level and subsequently to the sub-district level. It is at the sub-district level that indigenous peoples are more likely to influence decision on natural resources.

Gender and Natural Resource Management

In most countries laws and constitutions in all countries prohibit discrimination on the basis of sex but this is not reflected in the government’s natural resource management policies. Women’s primary responsibilities, such as cooking, fetching water and gathering, firewood are directly related to the use and management of natural resources. Although generally women are part of the work allocation and labor responsibilities in cultivation. The of women in plant and seed conservation and experimentation means they have a crucial in preserving the diversity of traditional medicines and food sources and natural resource management in general. 

Women suffer numerous hardships when ecological degradation occurs in forests and other common pool resources, making it difficult for them to go about their traditional activities such as the preparation of food, medicines and making handicrafts. Women also feel more burdened with the responsibility of looking for scare income-generating alternatives, if they denied access to natural resources for food, water and firewood. The degradation of natural forests results not only in the extinction of many plants, economic well-being and health of the family and society but also indigenous women’s knowledge systems. Gender roles within indigenous communities are changing continually as result of state policies. Thus, it is necessary that any policy formulation on natural resource management takes gender equations into account. There is a need to acknowledge the specific needs, perspectives, and roles of women in natural.

Conclusion

To bring about gender equity in natural resource management would need committed support from other factors, including social, political and community leaders. It is also important to ensure that laws and policies are made appropriate for preventing discrimination against indigenous women. 

What is the " Debates on Self-determination" theory of Indigenous People

Term emerge from the French ‘revolution’. Self-determination is an important and is debated issues. The nation states are given by the colonial counties. The right on self-determinism is the right to participate in the democratic process of government and to influence was to political as well as social and cultural once.

It has 3 features which are given below

1. Political.
2. Cultural.
3. Social. 

Self-determinism embodies the right for all people to determine their own economic social and cultural development. Widro Willsons said that “Every people have a right to choose the sovereignty under which they shall live”

Characteristics of United Nation it also  say the international convention on economic social and cultural right. It says all people have the right of self-determinism and the liberalist view effective on and cultural right”

“As the population of a political dependence work as a hole there should not be anomalies “,

Arguments about Self-determinism  

1. Debates occur in the UN constitution law when they go for a declaration.
2. The government excluded the term already.
3. If needed this can be used internal not internationally.
4. The sovereignty may be challenged from this.
5. Notion or commotion may occur if the self-determination may occur.
6. Disorganization may happen.

In favor there is also some 

1. Better control can be established.
2. Cultural heritage can be reserve.
3. Economic opportunity increase autonomy.
4. Mental stability for indigenous people.
5. Less oppression of majority.
6. Fewer burdens of the indigenous people.

Describe the Critique on Liberal Perspective

The theory of liberalism was primarily developed in the writings of the British Philosophers John Stuart Mill, Locke, Hume and Bentham and has been an enormously influential tradition in the development of western democracies. This tern as a political doctrine developed in Europe from the 17th century, onwards, involving the rejection of authoritarian forms of government, the deference of freedoms of speech, association and religion and the aspersion of the right to private property.

Liberal Perspective

1. Liberal conception is an individualist conception – is unduly limited.
2. Not conservative but progressive about economic and politics.
3. Mainly based on its individualism.

Steps of Liberal Perspective

First Step: Emphasis on the individual precludes a proper theory of the state, which suggest in principle that liberalism cannot be trusted to deal adequately with the question of status and rights for ethnic communities, most of which are minorities within the state.

The Second Step: It is to cite practices relating to ethnic communities and other groups practices that at the very least raise questions about the adequacy of the liberal individualist prescription. They suggest that liberalism needs supplementing. 

The Third Step: It elaborates the second, citing the right of nations or peoples to self-determination as the rights of group rather than of individuals and therefore as a right for which liberalism does not offer a clear basis. In some cases the rights that groups exercise are perhaps reducible to individual rights and can thus be brought within the framework of liberal theory, but in other cases the right belongs to groups as corporate units.

Fourth Step: It is to note an implication of the third, that the usual assumptions that the consent of the governed is the consent of individuals is open to question and that the consequent that counts may come from groups.

The Final Step: It is to ask what differences it makes if ethnic communities and other groups in addition to individuals are acknowledge as right and duty bearing units.

Principles of Liberalism

A society is founded upon liberal principles as the one, so it was argued, that self-innersole, rational individuals would choose. The nations of choice, individuals freedom and hostility an over might or interfering state which are embedded within liberalism.

Critique on Liberal Perspective

• Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau has the liberal perspective who emphasis on individualism.
• Recent, Earnest Barker and Stuat Mills, The state arises from a contract in which member gives up his own natural right. The maximum development of the capacities of the greatest number of individuals.
• Mills and Barker, the boundary of the nation should determine the boundaries of the state. The modern state is not always a unitary national society. 
• “The liberal thinks that if we can increase the individual rights than collective rights also be gained. All rights should be purely individual ones”

Rainer Baubock –To deny the group

• They may deny their legitimacy (Rejecting).
• They may deny the collective nature of the right (reducing).
• They may accept the collective nature of home arrangement but deny their right (remaining/re habit).

Liberal view of rights they also keep some collective rights which cannot be expressed collectively and there will be no obligation.

Conflict of Group and Individual Right

1. Group differentiated right- voting right and Age.
2. Collective right.

Pursuid → Slephen Castle and Mark → five characteristics

1. Acceleration Migration.
2. Diversification.
3. Globalization Migration.
4. Feminization.
5. Global Diasporas. 

Briefly Discuss the Social Conflict and Urban Development

Social conflict

The term social conflict refers to the perceived feeling of separation or distance between social groups. According to Karl Marx, “The history of the hitherto existing society is the history of the class struggle.” Mainly Marx popularized the term social conflict worldwide. Social conflict has diversified perspectives but Marx only analyzed it from economic perspective.

a. Economic perspective: From Marxist view, social conflict or class conflict prevails between:

• Master and slave (in slavery).
• Landlord and serf (in feudalism).
• Bourgeois  and proletariat (in capitalism) 

Here we can see that the rich always exploits the poor and a sense of conflict exists between two groups.

b. Gender Perspective: From feminist view, a universal conflict prevails between male and female. Because in all societies the male are considered themselves superior than the female and the female are deprived from their human rights.

c. Religious perspective: In religious view, there are two groups in all societies such as 

• Religious leaders.
• Common people.

The first group always wants to exploit the second group.

d. Ideological perspective: There are main two types of ideology

• Liberalism 
• Conservatism

There is always a cold conflict between two groups as the conservative people can never mix with all other people in society.

e. Political perspective: Different people support different types of political ideology that incase of politics there are mainly two parties----

• Government party
• Opposition party

These two parties involve in conflicts and usually criticize each other.

Urban Development

Simply urban development refers property to a growth in the proportion of a county’s population living in urban centers of a particular size. In another word, it means the process of city formation. In broadly speaking, urban development is the total systematic way of developing the living standard of city people.

It indicates structural development, development of trade and commerce, technological advancement, spiritual development and so on.

Causes of urban development

1. Modern education.
2. Scientific advancement.
3. Surplus production in agriculture.
4. Industrialization.
5. Political movement.

Determinants of urban development 

1. High living standard of people.
2. Individualism.
3. Developing urban mentality.
4. Mode of life is very fast/technical life.
5. Commercialization.
6. Liberty and freedom and so on. 

Ethnicity and Residential Segregation in American Society

In American Society, the following ethnic community and their residential area are found.

African American: In the 17^th century, people were brought from African as a slave to America. They fled into South America and at first lived in rural area. But, after industrialization they started to live in urban area. 12.4% of the total population in 1990 is black who are severely discriminated. One-third of all African Americans in USA live under conditions of intense racial segregation. They are unambiguously among the nations, most spatially isolated and geographically seclude people. Black Americans in these, Metropolitan Areas live within large, contiguous settlements of densely inhabited neighborhoods that are packed tightly around the urban core. In plain terms, they lived in ghettoes.

Mexican American: The concentration of Mexican Americans in the southwestern states derives from a complex history that began more than four centuries ago. When Texas, California and the other states of the region were territories then colonized by Spain via Mexico. Through frequent military conflict throughout the 19^th century, this region was ultimately acquire and dominated by the US.  80% of the Mexican American is now urban and cities such as Los Angeles, San Antonio. They are segregated and interior. They live in ghetto for their language barrier.

For following reason, they are occupy marginal position-

• The great diversity of the group across region, age and social class.
• The recent and extent of the groups massive migration to the city.
• Mexican American Worked as a worker in Chicago, Detroit.

Puerto Ricans: They are one of the largest but most economically depressed Spanish speaking communities in Urban America, Puerto Ricans were the colony of Spain at past. Then Americans has been mobile and movement to other cities such as Philadelphia Boston or Chicago has been increasingly more common. After world war ll, when Chicago, Philadelphia as worker and they are also discriminated.

Native American: Native Americans are treated themselves as minority in their own county. Indigenous people in U.S.A are Native Americans who lived in Oklahoma and rural area. But in urban they lived in Chicago and Los Angeles. Native America are very poor and also discriminated.

Russian Religious Sects: They have a distinct religious belief which is called ‘Molocan’. They are the migrating population in U.S.A. They live in Los Angeles nearby rail, road and factory. Brotherhood concepts are deep in Russia Religious minded people.

Asian American: They are settlers for a long time. They live more in New York City. Asian American who is regarded as minority lives in a segregated place to concentrate from other groups or community. Such as China town.

Jewess Community: They lived in ghetto of America and were discriminated from various things or matters. But at present, they are well assimilated. They keep themselves a good relation.

Sicilians: They live in Chicago which is very dirty and smoking area because of living in deside industry. They are segregated from other ethnic group.

Meaning and Dimension of Ethnicity and Residential Segregation

Ethnicity

Ethnicity is a concept that is purely social in meaning. Ethnic refers to the cultural practices and outlooks of a given community of people that set them apart from others. It is a shared (perceived or actual) racial, linguistic or national identity of a social group. It is an imprecise term which has given rise to some degree of conceptual confusion.

According to Smith, 1986 

“An ethnic group or ethnicity is a population of humans whose members identify with each other, usually on the basis of a presumed common genealogy or ancestry."

Jary and Jary said that “Ethnicity is an imprecise term which has given rise to some degree of conceptual confusion.”

According to Oxford Dictionary of Sociology  

“Ethnicity defines individuals who consider themselves or are considered by other to share common characteristics which differentiate them from the other collectivities in a society within which they develop distinct cultural behavior."

The Jews in the United since they are include individuals of different racial origins and they share a common Jewish identity. Indians in Britain constitute an ethnic group although as individuals in India they would be seen to be members of quite different groups in terms of caste and language.

Residential Segregation

The most important cause of residential segregation is immigration. Most black families have remained within predominantly black neighborhoods primarily because they have been effectively excluded from white residential area.

Class	Gender	Ethnicity
Upper Class	Men Women	White
Middle Class		Protestant
Lower Class		Hispania non protestant
Under Class		Blacks

Dimension of Ethnicity and Residential  Segregation

Douglas Massey and Nancy Denton (1993: 74-77) identify five distinct dimensions that may characterize the spatial arrangement of ethnic communities across a metropolitan region.

1. Unevenness: African Americans may be distributed so that they are over represented in some areas and underrepresented in other areas.
2. Isolation: African Americans may be distributing. So that they have little interaction with other groups.
3. Clustered: Black neighborhoods may be tightly clustered to form one contiguous enclave or they may be scattered about in checker board fashion.
4. Concentrated: Black, neighborhoods may be concentrated with in a very small area or they may be settled sparsely throughout the urban.
5. Centralization: Black neighborhoods may be spatially centralized around the urban core or spread out along the periphery.

These five dimensions together define geographic traits that social scientists think of when they consider segregation. As segregation accumulates across multiple dimensions.

What are the Features and Types of Neighborhood

Neighborhood is defined as relatively autonomous and meaningful socio geographical area of resident characterized by high interaction among the residence.

The word neighbor comes from Old Saxon English neah and gebur, Neah mans close and gebur means dwellers or residents. So the etymological meaning of neighbor is dweller who live very close.

Gottdiener and Hutchison said that “Neighborhood had any socio-spatial environment where primary rations among residents dominate”.

Carpenter and Ruth Glass, 1933 said that “A territorial group, the member of which meet on common ground within their own area for primary groups, social activities and for organized and spontaneous social contract.”

Glass told that “Neighborhood is a distinct territorial group, distinct by virtue of the specific physical characteristics of the area and the specific social characteristics of its inhabitants.”

Features of Neighborhood

Gottdiener identify some feature of neighborhood

1. Local residential life.
2. The enjoyment of friendship circles among people living in the same sections.
3. Involvement is strongly related to the life cycle.
4. Found in all sectors of the metro region city and suburbs.

Carmon identify some feature of neighborhood

1. Continuous physical proximity among people.
2. Express some expression, attitudes or social behavior.
3. Effective informal control system for maintaining the social order.

Nishbet identified 

1. High degree of personal intimacy.
2. Emotional death.
3. Moral commitment.
4. Social cohesion.
5. Continuity in time.

Types of Neighborhood

Rachelle and Donald Warner (1977)-

They emphasis on 3 dimension of neighborhood 

• Identity.
• Interaction. 
• Linkage.

Warm and warren identify 5 types of neighborhood 

1. The integral neighborhood: Individuals are in close contact and share many concern and often participate in group activities.
2. The Parochial Neighborhood: A strong sense of shared ethic identity exists however it is independent from larger community.
3. Diffuse neighborhood: Residents have many things in common but they have little interaction and fewer collections to the larger community.
4. The transition neighborhood: Residents are highly mobile hence they do not fond community attachment of sense of collectivity.
5. The anomie neighborhood: It is characterized by poor neighborhood where there is little or no a relation or connections.

Functions of Neighborhood

Warm and warren identify 6 major functions

1. An arena for interaction.
2. A center for interpersonal influence.
3. A source for mutual aid.
4. A based for formal and informal organization.
5. A reference group.
6. A status area.

Approaches of Neighborhood

1. Ecological approach.
2. Resources approach.
3. Symbolic approach.
4. Sub cultural approach.

What are the Features of "Class"

Features of Upper Class

1. They often have many homes both at cities and country sides live in fashionable districts in suburbs. Example: Nonhin in San Francisco, Bexerly Hills in Los Angels, Beacon Hill in Boston, and Park Avenue in New York City. Dhanmondi Dhaka, Uttara, guishan, Banani, Baridhara.
2. Their activities take place within isolated areas like restaurants, resorts and social club and it’s reserved for them.
3. Living in ultra-expensive houses with security guards and controlled entrance. Example: Duplex home.
4. Often utilize private transportation despite having public transport, door to door limousine, services. Ex. Private Car with air conditioned.
5. Shopping and recreation are all located in heavily police areas.
6. Requiring private security guards, apartment building with twenty-four-hour doormen and private schools or academies for children.
7. World class housing facilities.
8. Availability of expensive healthcare facilities. Example: Bardem.
9. Existence of instrumental and expressive roles. Example: Khan Group.
10. Tendency of waste and luxury. Example: Navana group.
11. They have much leisure time.

Features of Middle Class

1. They have no own home. Even if they have home it is located in economic area.
2. They lead semis luxurious life without security guard.
3. Often utilize public transport. Ex:Bus.
4. Public school or academy for children.
5. Middle class housing facilities.
6. Too much family member than room umber.
7. Nuclear and extended family.
8. Health facility is available in own area.
9. They have no leisure time. Example. Weaken, Friday, Saturday.
10. Husband and wife both are confined to job.
11. They develop slums in urban area.
12. They do not block restaurant.
13. They called yuppie, drink, bupple.

Features of Lower Class

1. Life in the city was dominated by features.
2. Modest working class housing was constructed in gird-pattern rows nearby.
3. The working class the pub, the association football park (sector) or the local husband diamond and the streets which sensed as playground for children.
4. The quality of life of the working class is dependent on the public services provided by weal government.
5. They require mass transportation which is becoming increasingly expensive.
6. The level of medical cure for this less affluent group is seriously deficient and dependent on city supported hospitals because they work at jobs that do not provide adequate, if any, health insurance.
7. Their standards of living depend on city service, the working poor are often at odds with public administrator.
8. Early marriage.
9. They do not take sufficient nutrition. They are suffering from malnutrition. 
10. The working poor and their advocate in the city fight a running battle with the mayor over the declines in education fair and police protection, sanitation, highway maintenance heath care and recreational amenities.
11. Living in the worst areas of the central city means that the ghettoized poor are subjected to an almost unending list of pathological consequences of city living, in clouding public health crises such as AIDS, child abuse, and tuberculosis, dropout from education, juvenile crime drug addiction and the bearing of addicted babies, juvenile motherhood, murder, rape and robbery. 

Question of Classical Sociological Theory

Third Year, First Term Examination 2015

Sociology Discipline

Khulna University

Session: 2013-2014

Course No.: Soc 3101

Title of the Course: Classical Sociological Theory

Full Marks: 60                                                                Time: 03 Hours

• The figures in the right margin indicate full marks. The questions are of equal value.
• Use separate answer script for each section.

Section A

There are four questions in this section. Answer any three questions.

1. Discuss the intellectual forces that influenced the emergence of sociology. 10

2. Discuss the importance of Comte’s ‘positivism’ in the development of sociological discourse. 10

3. How does Spencer’s view on social evolution change the society from homogeneous to                                                    heterogeneous? Critically discuss. 10

4. Critically discuss Marxist materialistic interpretation of history. 10

Section-B

There are four questions in this section. Answer any three questions

1. What is Weber’s ideal type? ‘Rationalism is the main modern society’- Explain. 10

2. How did Durkheim use the concept of solidarity to explain the different types of suicide? Discuss. 10

3. What is logico-experimental method? How did Pareto use the method in analyzing residues and derivation? Explain. 10

4. What is objective culture? How is it used in social structure? Discuss with example. 10

Question of Demography

Third Year, First Term Examination 2015

Sociology Discipline

Khulna University

Session: 2013-2014

Course No.: Soc 3103

Title of the Course: Demography

Full Marks: 60                                                    Time: 03 Hours

• The figures in the right margin indicate full marks. The questions are of equal value.
• Use separate answer script for each section.

Section A

There are four questions in this section. Answer any three questions.

1. A. Explain the nature and scope of Demography.  05
        B. Narrate the trend of world population. 05

2. A. Evaluate the theory of optimum population. 05
        B. What is demographic transition theory? Critically discuss the demographic transition in Bangladesh. 05

3. A. What is population pyramid? 02
        B.  Discuss the characteristics of population pyramid. 03
        C.  How can you achieve demographic dividend in the context of Bangladesh? 05

4. A. Critically discuss the Davis-Blacke model on fertility. 05
        B. How will you measure the fertility? Discuss. 05

Section-B

There are four questions in this section. Answer any three questions

1. A. What are the components of mortality? 02
        B. What is the difference between morbidity and mortality? 04
        C. What are the causes of death? 04

2. A. what are the ‘push’ and ‘pull’ factors in migration? 03
        B. Critically discuss the causes of unequal distribution of population in the global context. 07

3. A. What is the necessity of population estimation and projection? 04
        B. Discuss the methods of population projection with example. 06

4. Critically discuss the paradigm shift of population policy in Bangladesh. 10

Question of Urban Sociology

Third Year, First Term Examination 2015

Sociology Discipline

Khulna University

Session: 2013-2014

Course No.: Soc 3107

Title of the Course: Urban Sociology

Full Marks: 60                                                        Time: 03 Hours

• The figures in the right margin indicate full marks. The questions are of equal value.
• Use separate answer script for each section.

Section A

There are four questions in this section. Answer any three questions.

1. A. ‘Urban Sociology is the study of social relationships and structures in the city’ Explain. 05
        B. Briefly discuss the origin and development of Urban Sociology. 05

2. A. Discuss the major characteristics of classical cities. 05
        B. Explain how medieval cities were developed in Europe. 05

3. A. What is industrial city? 02
        B.  Illustrate the salient features of industrial city. 04
        C.  Briefly discuss the political economy of third world cities. 05

4.     A. State the forms and functions of neighborhood. 04
         B. Critically discuss the human ecology approach of neighborhood. 06

Section-B

There are four questions in this section. Answer any three questions

1. A. What is meant by social stratification? 03
        B. Discuss the nature of ethnic-residential segregation and its consequences in developed countries. 07

2. A. what are the determinants of primate city? Explain with example. 05
        B. Discuss the patterns of urbanization in Bangladesh. 05

3. A. Briefly describe the changing nature of urban social movements and politics in Bangladesh. 05
        B. Show the relation between rapid urbanization and slum formation in third world countries. 05

4. A. Identify Charles Abram’s classification of squatter settlements from Latin American perspective. 05
        B. Explain the nature of informal economy and coping strategies in third world cities. 05

Factors Affecting Fertility

Fertility
Lewis and Thompson “Fertility is general used to indicate the actual reproductive performance of a women or groups of women.

Collins dictionary of sociology “The physical capacity of a woman or man to sexuality reproduces.”

Oxford Dictionary of Sociology, “The actual level of child bearing of an individual or population.

Fecundity:
Thompson and Lewis, “Fecundity is a biological potential of the physical capacity to participate in reproduction.”

C.D.S “The physiological capacity to reproduce.”

O.D.S. “The biological capacity for reproduction of individual of population.”

Factors affecting fertility

A. Biological Factors: 

• Health. 
• Diseases.
• Food Habit.

B. Indirect Social Factors

• Age at marriage.
• Polygamy.
• Separation and divorce.
• Widowhood.
• Postpartum abstinence. 
• Abstinence and Menstruation.
• Celibacy.
• Frequency of Coitus.

C. Direct factors

• Oral Pills.
• Loop.
• Condom.
• Abortion.
• Infanticide.

D. Other Social Factors

• Food supply.
• Economic condition.
• Family system.
• Social status of women.
• Political system.
• Attitude forwards children.

Why High Birth Rates are so Low by Bongarts?

The highest fertility ever recorded reliably in a society is founded among Hutterities, a religious set living in a small community near the united stars and Canadian border. In 1950, Hutterities women who had reached the end of their reproductive years had given birth to an average of 89 children.

Although Hutterities fertility is very high compared with that of many of human population, it is surprisingly low from the point of view of biological reproductive efficiency. Clearly a women is able to bear more than about nine children during her 30 year or so of reproductive life (age 15-45) as is evident from the numerous examples of women who have given birth more than 15 children in their reproductive years.

But the question arises, why then are women in such societies such as the Hutterities, where deliberate birth control is absent, reproducing at rates substantially below biological limits? In this particular case two factors are responsible—

1. Demographic Factors and natural fertility.
2. Biological factors and natural fertility.

A. Demographic Factors and Natural Fertility: Marriage is the principle demographic factor affecting the birth rate in population with natural fertility. A women’s reproductive career also being with marriage but not the case in every society. For example, in Indian young bride often stay with their parents for sometimes after marriage and in part of Latin America child bearing is legitimate in consensual unions. Before the official marriage ceremony. Such as Maradona, Messi.

Among young women the proportions of married in different age groups depends mainly on the average age at first marriage while over age 30 the incidence of 

• Celibacy.
• Widowhood.
• Divorce and 
• Remarriage is the chief determinant.

In a study of Bourgeoies and Pichat 1950 found that with average of respectively 10 and 40 percent of potential marital life remaining unused between the ages of 15 and 45. Among high fertility counties value for lost reproductive years at about 25 percent was common, so that of  in the 30 years of potential reproductive life 22.5 years were spent in the married state. This implies that, if the total fertility rate equals to 7 births per women, the rate of child bearing is 0.31 births (7/ 22.5) per married women per year.

It should emphasized that a marital fertility rate of 0.31 is an average, higher value prevail in the age group bellow 30 ages, whereas near the end of the reproductive period fertility is much lower. One of the first analyses of natural marital fertility rates was made by Louis Henry, who collected data from 13 societies with widely varying cultural characteristics in which deliberate birth control could be assumed absent. Averaging the fertility rates in these 13 societies resulted in the following values----

0.42 for women aged 20-30 years.

0.33 for women aged 30-40 years.

0.15 for women aged 40-45 years.

There is a clear age pattern, but the value of 0.31 for all ages, arrived at by the above crude calculation, appears to be a representative average of observed natural age specific marital fertility rates.

B. Biological Factors and Natural Fertility: Rates sterility is the biological fact primarily responsible for the age pattern in natural marital fertility. A distinction is usually made among the following three types—

• Adolescent Sterility: Present among teen agers who have not yet reached menarche or who ovulate irregularly after menarche.
• Primary Sterility: Present among women who are never able to reproduce.
• Secondary Sterility: Which sets in after having been fertility little is known about the determinants of the prevalence of each of the forms of sterility, but presumably health and nutrition are important. Ex: Because of accident. 

From the available measurement, it is estimated that in health population, the loss of fertility years among all women between the ages 15-45 is probably less than 20 percent, but in areas where malnutrition and poor health conditions are common a higher sterility incidence may be observed.

One could find that in a natural fertility population only 17 or 18 out of the 22.5 years married life are non-sterility and thus available for reproduction. If the total fertility rate is 7 births per women, this would mean a rate of birth 0.4 (7/17.5) per non-sterile married women per-year and an average interval between births of about 2.5 (17.5/7) years.

Immediately, following a birth women experience “ post-partum amenorrhea” a period during which the normal eyelike pattern of menstruation and ovulation is absent. But after the regular ovulation function is restored married women are subject to the rise of conception. And once an ovum has been fertilized, it has about 50% chance to survive 9 months and yield a live birth, with approximately one- third of fertilized ova being rejected during the first two weeks after conception. (In this regards Bongarts divided the segments of interval between two births, a typical thirty months birth interval in a natural fertility population as follows-

•  12 month- postpartum amenorrhea.
• 4 month- waiting time to conception before an intrauterine death. 
• 1 month- non-susceptible period associated with the intrauterine death.
• Another 4 month- conception waiting time a live birth.
• And finally 9 month full time pregnancy.

In summary, the highest observed birth rates are much lower than is biologically possible because women in natural fertility societies are pregnant during only about one-sixth of their reproductive years. As a result birth rates rarely exceed 50 in population in which no deliberate actions are taken to affect the biological process of reproduction voluntary.