Tofel Article

A and An

A or An can precede only singular count nouns; they mean one. They can be used in a general statement or to introduce a subject which has not been previously mentioned.

A baseball is round general.—(means all baseballs)

I saw a boy in the street.  ---(We don’t know which boy)

An is used before words that being with a vowel sound. A is used before worlds that being with a consonant sound.

 A book           an apple

Some words can be confusing because the spelling doesnot indicate the pronunciation.

A house

An hour

A university

An umbrella

The following words being with a consonant sound and thus must always be preceded by a.

European, eulogy,  euphemism,   eucalyptus, house, home, heavy, half,  uniform, university,  universal ,  union

The following words being with a vowel sound and thus must always be preceded by an.

Hour, heir, herbal,  honor, uncle, umbrella, unnatural, understanding

 The initial sound of the word that immediately follows the indefinite article will determine whether it should be a or an.

An umbrella                 a white umbrella

An hour                        a whole hour

The

The is used to indicate something that we already know about or something that is common knowledge.

The boy in the corner is my friend. (The speaker and the listener know which boy)

The earth is round. (There is only one the earth)

With non-count nouns, one uses the article the if speaking in specific terms, but uses no article if speaking in general.

Sugar is sweet.

The sugar on the table is from Cuba.

Normally, plural count nouns when they mean everything within a certain class, are not preceded by the.

Oranges are green until they ripen

Athletes should follow a well-balanced diet

Normally a proper noun is not preceded by an article unless there are several people or things with the same name and the speaker is specifying one of therm.

There are three Susan parkers in the telephone directory.

The Susan parker that I know lives on First Avenue.

Normally words such as breakfast, lunch, dinner, school, church, home, college) and work do not use any article unless to restrict the meaning.

We ate breakfast at eight o’clock this morning

We went to school yesterday

Use the following generalizations as a guide for the use of the article the

Use the with

Don’t use the with

Oceans, rivers, sea, gulfs, plural lakes. The Red Sea, the Atlantic Ocean, the Persian Gulf, the Great Lakes Mountains The Rocky Mountains, the Andes Earth, Moon The earth, the moon Schools, colleges, universities when the phrase beings with school etc. The university of Florida, the College of Arts and Science Ordinal numbers before nouns The First World War, the third chapter War ( except world war) The Crimean War, the Korean War Certain countries or groups of  countries with more than one word ( except Great Britain) The United States, the United Kingdom, the Central African Republic. Historical documents The Constitution, the Magna Carta Ethnic groups The Indians, the Aztecs

Singular lakes Lake Geneva, Lake Erie Mounts Mount Vesuvius, Mount McKinley Planets, constellations Venus, Mars, Earth, Orion Schools, colleges, universities when the phrase begins with a proper noun Santa Fe Community College, Cooper’s Art School, Stetson University Cardinal numbers after nouns World war one, chapter three Countries preceded by New or an adjective such as a direction New Zealand, South Africa, North Korea Countries with only one  word France, Sweden, Venezuela Continents Europe, Africa, South America States Florida, Ohio, California Sports Baseball, basketball Abstract nouns Freedom, happiness General areas of subject matter Mathematics, sociology Holidays Christmas, thanks giving

Tofel

Subject

The subject is the agent of the sentence in the active voice. It is the person or thing that performs or it is responsible for the action of the sentence and it normally precedes the verb. Note every sentence in English must have a subject. (In the case of commands, the subject [you] is understood.) the subject may be a single noun.

Coffee is delicious

Milk contains calcium

The subject may be a noun phrase. A noun phrase is a group of words ending with a noun. (it cannot begin with a  preposition.)

The book is on the table

The new red car is john’s

Examples of subjects:

We girls are not going to that movie.

George likes boats.

Mary, john, George, and I went to a restaurant last night

The weather was very bad yesterday.

The chemistry professor canceled class today

The bank closed at two o’clock

It can act as a pronoun for a noun or can be the subject of an impersonal verb. As the subject of an impersonal verb, the pronoun is not actually used in place of a noun, but is part of an idiomatic expression.

It rains quite often here in the summer

It is hard to believe that he is dead.

In some sentences, the true subject does not appear in normal subject position. There can act as a pseudo-subject and is treated like a subject appears after the verb, and the number of the true subject controls the verb.

There   was    a fire   in that building last month.

Was   there  a fire  in that building last month?

There were many students in the room.

Were there many students in the room?

Verb

The verb follows the subject in a declarative sentence; it generally shows the action of the sentence. Note: every sentence must have a verb. The verb may be a single word.

John drives too fast

They hate spinach

The verb may be a verb phrase. A verb phrase consists of one of more auxiliaries and one main verb. The auxiliaries always precede the main verb.

Jhon is going to Miami tomorrow.

John has been reading that book

Example of verbs and verb phrases

She will go to Boston next week

Jane is very tall

She must have gone to the bank

Joe has gone home

Mary is watching television

It was raining at six o’clock last night 

Complement

A complement completes the verb. It is similar to the subject because it is usually a noun or noun phrase; however, it generally follows the verb when the sentence is in the active voice.

Note every sentence does not require a complement. The complement cannot begin with a preposition. A complement answers the question what? Or whom?

Examples of complements….

John bought a cake yesterday.  (What did john buy?)

Jill was driving a new car.        What was jill driving?

He wants to drink some water.      What does he want to drink?

She saw john at the movies last night.  Whom did she see at the movies?

They called Mary yesterday.                 Whom did they call yesterday?

He was smoking a cigarette                   what was he smoking?

Modifier

A modifier tells the time, place or manner of the action. Very often it is a prepositional phrase. A prepositional phrase is group of words that begins with a preposition and ends with a noun. Note: a modifier of time usually comes last if more than one modifier is present.

Examples of prepositional phrase:

In the morning, at the university, on the table

A modifier can also be an adverb or an adverbial phrase.

Last night, hurriedly, next year, outdoors, yesterday

Note: every sentence does not require a modifier. A modifier answers the question when? Where? Or how?

Example of modifier

1.    John bought a book at the bookstore.

2.    Jill was swimming in the pool yesterday.

3.    He was driving very fast

4.    The milk is in the refrigerator

5.    She drove the car on main street

6.     we ate dinner at seven o’clock

1.    Where did john buy a book?

2.    Where was Jill swimming?

When was Jill swimming?

3.    How was he driving?

4.    Where is the milk?

5.    Where did she drive?

6.    When did we eat dinner?

 

Note: the modifier normally follows the complement, but no always. However, especially when it is a prepositional phrase,

usually can’t separate the verb and the complement.

Incorrect: she drove (verb) on the street the car (complement)

Correct: she drove(verb)  the car (complement)on the street  

Definition of Anthropology

Anthropology is a branch of sociology. It always describe human, human behavior and human societies around the world. It is a comparative science that examines all societies. The term anthropology comes from Latin world ‘anthrop’ means man or human  and ‘logos’ means science or study. So the term anthropology means scientific study of man or human beings.

Definition of Anthropology

Anthropologists have defined anthropology in many ways. Some of them are given below.

“Anthropology the study of human kind everywhere, throughout time , seeks to produce useful generations about people and their behavior and to arrive at the fullest possible understanding of human diversity.” (Havilland, W. A. 1975)

“Anthropology is the study of people and all the things they do, think, say and make.” (Gwynne, H. 1994)

“Anthropology is the study of human beings, divided into the branches of biologically oriented, physical anthropology and social oriented, social anthropology” (Jary and Jary, 2005)

Characteristic: 

• Study of human beings.
• Scientific process.
• Explain human diversity,
• Tendency to make generalization.

Finally, we can say that anthropology describe the distinctive feature of different culture ,organization, fundamental similarity among human being around the world

Defination and types of socialization

Socialization:

  Man is not only social but also cultural. It is the culture that provides    opportunities for man to develop the personality. Development of personality is not an automatic process. Every society prescribes its own ways and means of giving social training to its new born member so that they may develop their own personality. This social training is called socialization.

The human child comes into the world as a biological organism with animal needs. He gradually moulded in society into a social being and learns social way of acting and feeling.

The process of moulding and shaping the personality of the human infant is called socialization. Some definition is to be given bellow that help to better understanding socialization.

W.F.Ogburn: “Socialization is the process by which the individual learns to conform to the norms of the group.”

Bogardus:  “Socialization is the process of working together, of developing group responsibility, or being guided by the welfare needs of others.”

Peter Worsley explains socialization as the process of Transmission of culture, the process whereby men learn the rules and practices of social groups.

Finally we can say that the process of adjustment in social environment is called socialization.

Types of socialization:

David and Jary told some types of socialization:

1.    Primary socialization: This is the most essential and basic type of socialization. It takes place in the early years of life of the new born individual. It concentrates on the teaching of language and cognitive skills, the interaction of culture, norms and values, establishment of emotional ties and the appreciation of other roles and perspectives.

The human child does not have a sense of right and wrong, desirable and undesirable, moral and immoral. By trial and error by direct and indirect observation and experience, the child gradually learns the norms relating to right and wrong behavior.

Process whereby people learn the language, attitude, values and action.

2.    Development socialization: This kind of learning is based on the achievements of primary socialization. “It builds on already acquired skills and knowledge as the adult progress through new situations such as marriage or new jobs. These new expectations, obligations, and roles. New learning is added to and blended with old in a relatively smooth and continuous process of development”—Ian Robertson    

3.    Anticipatory socialization: Men not only learn the culture of the group of which they are immediate members. They may also learn the culture of groups to which they do not belong. A person who intends to join the army may start doing physical exercises to toughen his body and learning the manners of army. Socialization is not a process that takes place merely in early childhood. On the other hand, it takes at different times and places throughout life.

4.    Re socialization: It is not only do individuals change roles within groups, but they also change membership – groups. It may also happen in periods of rapid social mobility. For example a newly wedded housewife may be forced to become a prostitute in a brother. In this instance the social role of the individual got changed radically.

5.    Broad socialization: It is intended to promote independence, individualism and self expression. Exam: school boy or collage boy doesn’t have more independent than university student

6.    Narrow socialization: It is intended to promote obedient and conformity. Exam: you have to clean your table.

7.    Natural socialization: occurs when infants and young starts explore, play and discover the social word. Exam: natural process when they play the action as bride or bridegroom.“The human infants learn Russo from nature.”

8.    Planed socialization: occurs when other people take action desire to teach or train others from infancy. Exam: an elder brother can teach his younger’s how to respect other.

9.    Positive socialization: positive socialization is the social learning that is best on pleasure existing experience.

10.                       Negative socialization: negative socialization occurred when others use punishment.

11.                       Secondary  socialization: