What are the Fundamental Principle and Rights on Constitution of Bangladesh

Fundamental Principle

1. Promotion of local government;
2. Participation of women in national life;
3. Democracy and women right;
4. Principles of ownership;
5. Emancipation of peasant and workers;
6. Provision of basic necessity;
7. Rural development and agricultural revolution;
8. Free and compulsory education;
9. Republic health and morality;
10. Equality and opportunity.
11. Work as a right and duties.
12. Duties of citizen and public servant.
13. Separation of judiciary from the executive.
14. National culture.
15. National monument.
16. Promotion of international peace and solidarity.

Fundamental Rights

1. Law inconsistent with fundamental rights to be avid.
2. Quality before law.
3. No discrimination on ground on religion.
4. Equality of opportunity in public employment.
5. Prohibition of foreign tittle.
6. Right to protection of law.
7. Protection of right to life and personal liberty.
8. Save guards as to arrest and detention.
9. Prohibition of force labor.
10. Protection in respect of trial and punishment.
11. Freedom of movement.
12. Freedom of assembly.
13. Freedom of association.
14. Freedom of thought and speech.
15. Freedom of profession or occupation.
16. Freedom of religion.
17. Right to property.
18. Protection of home.
19. Enforcement of fundamental rights.

What are the Content of the constitution of Bangladesh ?

Part	Content	Chapter	Article
1	The republic		1-7
2	Fundamental principle of state policy		8-25
3	Fundamental rights		26- 47(A)
4	Executive	The president	48-54
		Prime minister and the cabinet	55-58(A)
		Local government	59-60
		Defense service	61-63
		Autonym general	64
5	The legislative	Parliament	65-79
		Legislative and financial procedure	80-92 (A)
		ordinance making power	93
6	The judiciary	Supreme court	94-113
		Subordinate court	114- 116(A)
		Administrative tribunal	117
7	Election		118-126
8	Auditor general		127-132
9	The services of Bangladesh	Services	133-136
		Public service combination	137-141
9(A)	Emergency provision		141(A)-141(C)
10	Amend mental of the constitution		142
11	Miscellaneous		143-153

What Measures is to be taken for development of Agriculture?

It is expected that combined efforts of the government and people can solve the present problems of our agriculture. The following measures can be prescribed for removing the bottlenecks of our agriculture:

1. Reduction of dependence on Nature: In order to ensure mechanized cultivation and more production, irrigation facilities need be provided during dry season. Keeping this view in mind, water resources of the rives and canals of the country need be economically used to achieve the production target. Vast wasteland can be brought under cultivation by operating different irrigation projects and plans. It may open a new era of production, if necessary irrigation can be provided through hand and power-driven machines, deep and shallow tube-wells and other indigenous methods.
2. Flood Control: Flood control mechanism of Bangladesh is very weak. Necessary steps should be taken to construct embankment on both sides of the river, dredge to remove abstention, construct barrage on the upstream to protect external water, stop the flow of saline water in the southern part, increase the depth of rivers and canals, stop construction of unplanned roads and highways etc.
3. Introduction of Collective Farming: The law of inheritance has been executed in Bangladesh with the increased populations. This is raising demand of the successors. A piece of land is being sub-divided many times making its size smaller. This law of inheritance created problems for mechanization of agriculture. Size of holding needs be large for its cultivation by power tillers. It is also a very difficult task to withhold the law of inheritance. It is, therefore, necessary to motivate the cultivators about the benefits of collective farming. Necessary laws may also be formulated for the same.
4. Loan at Low Interest: Adequate capital is necessary for properly carrying out agricultural activities. But the rural people of Bangladesh since live below the poverty level, they cannot apply required inputs in their land. Therefore, production targets are seldom achieved. This situation can improve, if necessary loan is provided to the cultivators at low rate of interest and reasonable terms and conditions. It is, therefore, essential to expand the activities of loan disbursing societies and the Krishi Banks. Success of this program also partially depends on the loan disbursing agencies/ persons.
5. Subsidy: Subsidy needs be provided to the cultivators to procure different agricultural inputs like fertilizer, pesticides etc. This would help the cultivators procure necessary inputs at low prices to be applied in their lands. In spite of pressure from the donor agencies against subsidy, it should be continued. The Government is very much in favor of it. In this 2011-12 fiscal year. The amount of tk. 5700 core has been year marked as agricultural subsidy.
6. Pests Control: The local administrative machinery should be more active than the cultivators for pest control.  When the poor cultivators fail to adopt pest control measure because of financial crisis, local chairman, member or any other government representative from ‘Gram Sarker’ should come forward for their help. In addition, Agriculture council may be constituted in every village to work as auxiliary machinery not as an alternative to local administration for the development of agriculture. This council will concentrate its work only on agricultural development.
7. Modernization of Agriculture: Scientific cultivation can triple the current production; it is necessary to lunch scientific method of cultivation countrywide. In order to mechanize agriculture as well as raise production, new technologies commensurate to environment different inputs including green manure, cow dung manure, ashes or even the ‘Sharna’ fertilizer or Dr. Abdul Khaleque may be evolved. Application of this manure will reduce cost of production to a considerable extent. Requirement of ‘Sharna’ fertilizer per bigha has been estimated 800 grams only as against that of chemical fertilizer of 52 kilograms. That is, the above mentioned quantity of chemical fertilizer will cost Tk. 1000.00 while that of ‘Sharna’ will stand at tk. 105.00 only. The same will not only minimize the cost of production, but also increase the volume of production to the tune of 22 manuals per bigha. Utilization of ‘Sharna’ is scientifically known as the ‘Fight Hormon Catalyst’. The specialists expect that the application of ‘Sharna’ fertilizer can bring about a revolutionary change in agricultural production of Bangladesh.
8. Education and Training on Agriculture: Rural cultivators need be provided with necessary education and training on different fields of agriculture, especially for the use of machinery, application of fertilizer, pest control and other related matters. Mass media may also be utilized for the purpose.
9. Difficulties in Storage: Difficulties in Storage: The farmers face difficulties in preserving their commodities for the whole year due to lack of proper storage facilities. They can preserve only a small chunk of commodities in their dwelling houses and have to sell out the balance quantity immediately after harvest. Necessary initiatives both by government and private sectors need be taken for construction of store houses to help the producers.
10. Defective Marketing System: Transport and communication system of Bangladesh has not yet been developed to a desired level. For want of inadequate number of vehicles and undeveloped means of communication, perishable commodities are not timely transported from one place to another and as a result, these are damaged. This necessities for increased number of vehicles as well as developed means of communication.
11. Elimination of Middlemen: The illiterate rural farmers have to take the help of middlemen for marketing their products. These middlemen are very deep-rooted. The farmers can be saved from the clutches of these middlemen provided the government laws are properly enforced.
12. Amendment of the Tenancy System: The government should strictly play its role to execute the Tenancy Act; otherwise the poor farmers will be exploited by the rich landlords.  

What are the Difference between Agriculture and Industry

1. Agriculture meets the basic needs of mankind and occupies a significant place for producing food and supplying industrial raw materials. Modernization of agriculture also depends on industrial development. Necessary chemical products for increasing productivity of land are supplied by industry. Therefore, neither of the sectors can be ignored.

2. Capital, technical know-how, raw materials etc. are essentially required for industrial development. But development of agriculture encompasses various problems, of which tenancy act, smallholdings, inadequate irrigation, employment of surplus labor etc. are noteworthy. No such problem exists in industrial establishment.

3. Agricultural products are perishable and as such cannot be preserved for long time. This is responsible for marketing agriculture commodities at a comparatively lower price. The industrial products, on the contrary, can be easily stored and thus can be profitably sold.

4. The law of diminishing return is applicable to agricultural production, but the same is not applicable to industries.

5. Good harvest in our country is many times uncertain to a large extent because of vagaries of nature like flood, drought and other calamities. Investment in agriculture thus cannot ensure profit every year. But these types of calamities have very little impact on industry and these results in more industrial investment in the advanced countries.

6. The supply of agricultural raw material alone cannot dictate or control the international market. The supply or raw materials and industrial products can earn forcing exchange. The price of industrial goods does not rapidly fluctuate like that of raw materials.

7. A good number of total manpower of Bangladesh is directly employed in agriculture sector. The rate of agricultural productivity is not encouraging and for this reason this huge physical labor force cannot be considered economic. It is, therefore, necessary to establish industrial enterprises for absorption of this surplus manpower.

8. To maintain balance in the international trade, production of industrial goods is more profitable than agricultural produces. Because of its perishable nature, the prices of agricultural products can never be stable. More concentration should, therefore, be given on industrial development to avoid adverse balance of payment. 

It follows from the above discussion that no single factor can be prescribed for the economic development of Bangladesh. Production of both agricultural and industrial commodities should be increased for export after meeting the primary domestic requirements. More attention should also be given for exporting industrial products than raw materials. 

Describe the Importance of Agriculture in Bangladesh

1. Bangladesh is a developing country. Agriculture plays an important role in the economic development of the country. External debt alone cannot ensure full development and therefore, we have to depend more on our own local resources. Extensive development of agriculture can easily provide necessary fund for the national upliftment.

2. Agriculture also supplies raw materials for industry. Agriculture and industry, therefore, cannot be looked in isolation. The country needs be agriculturally developed before it is to be developed industrially.

3. Necessary food for our increasing population comes from agriculture. If production is not widely increased, famine may appear and if famine is met by importing food from outside the country, development activities of the nation may jeopardize. 

4. Government income is intimately connected with the development of agriculture. Government treasury becomes rich with the increased production of the country and revenue/tax including the area one can also be easily collected form the people. 

5. The volume of expo-import and trade increase with the increase of production. Transportation and communication facilities also increase. The circulation of money rises and internal commercial transactions also increase. More investment takes place and inflationary pressure reduces.

6. Agriculture contributes very significantly in international trade. We can raise our national income by exporting adequate raw materials for different industries, vegetables, fish and other food stuff.

7. About 42.40 percent people of our total population have been able to employ themselves in agriculture. About 80 percent of the people residing in the rural areas are employed in this sector.

8. Bi-products of agriculture are used as food for the cattle and these are treated as contributing factors for raising cattle resources.

What are the Main Provisions of the East Bengal Estate Acquisition and Tenancy Act 1950

After partition, East Bengal Estate Acquisition and Tenancy Bill was formulated in 1948. The Bill was passed in the then Provincial Assembly in 1949, which accorded approval of the Governor General in 1951. This Act is known as the East Bengal Estate Acquisition and Tenancy Act of 1950. As a result of promulgation of this Act, zemindari system in Bengal came to an end. The main provisions of the East Bengal Estate Acquisition and Tenancy Act of 1950 are described below:

1. The most important provision in the Act is on the abolition of all rent-receiving interests in land both agricultural and non-agricultural (including fisheries) between the riot and the state. Under the Act, these interests will be acquired by the government.
2. Khas land in excess of 100 standards big has or 10 bights per head in the family, whichever is greater, will be acquired by the government. In addition to the above ceiling, each family will be permitted to possess an area of land not exceeding 10 big has for its homestead. This provision does away with landlordism and the revolutionary aspect of the Act is entered round this.
3. The Act has also provided for preventing concentration of land in the hands of landlords after acquisition by the government. After government acquisition, none but a bonafide cultivator will be permitted to purchase land or otherwise acquire any land. A non-cultivator will need previous permission of a prescribed authority for purchasing or otherwise acquiring land. But in no case a cultivator and his family will possess more than 100 standard big has (or 33 acres). This provision ensures the permanent abolition of zemindari or landlordism.
4. Provision has also been made for giving compensation to the holders of all classes of rights at prescribed scales. Compensation is payable in cash or non-negotiable bonds bearing 3 percent interest by installments within 40 years.
5. The Act also provides for a fair basis for the determination of rent. It provides that the maximum rate of rent for any class of land will not exceed one-tenth of the value of gross produce or four-fifths of the existing rate of rents whichever is less. Besides, rent cannot be raised twice in 30 years. 
6. The Act assures tenants full occupancy rights with the right of transfer to bonafide cultivators. Subletting has been forbidden.
7. After state acquisition of excess land, it will be distributed under settlement. In making settlement of cultivable land preference will be given to a cultivator who holds less than 3 acres of land. This provision is intended to reduce the number of uneconomic holding.
8. The Act recognizes the existence of the problem of sub-division and fragmentation of holdings. Hence it provides for consolidation of holdings under certain conditions.

With the promulgation of the aforesaid Act, the provincial government of East Bengal/addition gradually took steps for abolition of Zemindary system. It was decided in 1996 to pay entire compensation to the zemindars at a time to fully curb their influence. 

What are the Characteristics of Agriculture in Bangladesh?

The economy of Bangladesh although is dominated by agriculture, it is not as developed as in other in other advanced countries. It is true that Bangladesh still lags far behind in respect of crops production. Agricultural productivity could not be raised due to small investment in agricultural lands. The main features of Bangladesh agriculture is narrated below

1. Primitive Type of Cultivation: The cultivators are still using almost all the age old appliances like ploughs, yokes, harrows, weak bulls etc. for cultivation of their land which were used during the ancient time.  The development countries brought revolutionary changes in agriculture by using modern and scientific equipment and other inputs like power tillers/ tractors, pesticides, fertilizer etc. Japan, the Philippines, South Korea and the United States of America (USA) are more advanced in this regard. Yield per acre in these countries is much higher than that of ours. 
2. Diminishing Fertility of the Soil: Like all other elements, the soil has also a definite limit of productivity or productive capacity. It is, therefore, necessary to raise the fertility of land for increasing productive capacity by applying manures suitable for environment and this can be done by mixing soil. Since the Bangladeshi cultivators are inexperienced in this regard, land of the rural villages started diminishing its fertility.
3. Small Holding of Land: Due to increased population, joint families are gradually disappearing and this is responsible for making the large holding smaller. Cultivation in such smallholdings is not possible even by wooden plough.
4. Landless Cultivators:  The rural poor people are day by day becoming landless due to economic pressure. These landless people for their subsistence cultivate lands of the village ‘mahajans’ on crop sharing basis. For want of ownership of land, they do not feel interested to properly invest; even feel unwilling to render their physical labor on this land. For this reason, good harvest is not possible.
5. Decreasing Per capital Cultivable Land: Cultivable land is being gradually reduced for distribution of limited land among the increasing population of the country. It is learnt from the meeting of the Parliamentary Committee of the Ministry of Agriculture held in September, 2003 that 82,900 hectares (i.e., about 1 percent) land is decreased per annum. Total cropped acreage is shrinking from 35.07 million acres in 2001-02 to 33.92 million acres in 2006-07.
6. Cultivation for Livelihood: Most of the farmers of Bangladesh produce crops for livelihood only; they had little interest for crop production on commercial basis. The commercial attitude for production of crops has not yet been popular. 
7. Dependence on Nature: Agriculture in Bangladesh depends on nature. Agricultural crop production is seriously hampered every year by the vagaries of nature. There is a common word that agriculture in Bangladesh is a gamble in the monsoons. But recently scientific method of cultivation has been introduced in agriculture. Power tillers, irrigation technology, bio and chemical fertilizer, insecticides etc. have also been widely used. As a result crop production varies considerably.
8. Fallow Land: Vast land of the eastern region especially in the districts of Mymensingh, Netrokona, Kishorganj, sylhet, Sunamganj etc. is still lying fallow and as such we are getting no yield from those lands. In some cases these are not even possible to take under agriculture or pisi-culture. This is essential to recover these lands and bring under cultivation. 
9. Uneven Land: Natural composition of the land of eastern 3 zone like that of Mymensingh, Sylhet, Chittagong and Dhaka is slightly uneven and for this reason most of these land cannot be brought under irrigation facilities. The uneven land also cannot hold or contain water and therefore, per acre yield of such lands is less than that of plain ones. 
10. Lack of Marketing of Agricultural Produce: Agricultural product needs extensive marketing program. It has not yet been possible to take extensive measures for making agriculture an industry in villages.

What are the Problems of Agriculture in Bangladesh?

Before embarking anything on problems of agriculture in Bangladesh, we should discuss the overall economic condition of the country. Although Bangladesh is mainly an agrarian country, due to natural calamities, low investment and unscientific method of cultivation decreasing production has become a regular phenomenon. In addition, increasing population of the country has further deteriorated food deficit. Development program is seriously hampered for importing food from abroad. It is thus necessary to attain self-suffices in food. For this reason problems of our agriculture have been identified as under:

1. Primitive Type of Cultivation: Agriculture in Bangladesh is still carried out by ancient method using a pair of bulls, wooden plough and yokes etc. As a result, production is not being increased. Application of semi-improved appliances though has stated but it is not adequate. 
2. Lack of Capital: low per capital income is responsible for low investment in agriculture. The people do not have any surplus for investment after meeting their basic needs. Moreover, estimated average income does not match with the real income of a farmer of the rural village. Real income is always less than it is shown. 
3. Education for Agriculture: The rural people could not yet attain adequate knowledge for mechanized cultivation. About 35 percent people are yet to be literate. Because , most of the literate people are ignorant of modern methods of cultivation. They also possess very little knowledge about the soil composition, use of fertilizer suitable for environment and pesticides. Therefore, it is very difficult to get good harvest. 
4. Small Agricultural Holdings: Due to increased population, joint families are gradually disappearing thereby leading agricultural holdings to smaller ones. In many cases the holding are so small that cultivation of these land holdings are difficult not only by power-tillers, but also even by wooden ploughs. This results in low rate of average production.
5. Lack of Agricultural Credit: The pecuniary condition of the poor village cultivators is so poor that they cannot afford to even minimum cultivation cost. If required inputs are not applied during the crop season, good harvest cannot be expected. There is serious dearth of agricultural credit in villages. The amount of loan advanced by the commercial banks under government initiatives is not adequate to meet the requirement. The genuine cultivators many times do not get this loan. They generally receive loan from the village ‘mahajans’ at a higher rate of interest. Currently this problem has been intensified because the number of ‘mahajans’ has decreased. It is true that the NGOs are providing loan, but their behavior and rate of interest are more damaging than the ‘mahajans’.
6. What of Seeds and Fertilizer: Because of financial insolvency, the cultivators are not in a position to use better seeds, appropriate fertilizer and other pest control measures. Besides, their little knowledge of applying chemicals and its usefulness is responsible for inadequate utilization of these materials. Per acre yield, therefore, is very low in Bangladesh.
7. Lack of Irrigation: It has not been possible to bring all the cultivable land under irrigation like other developed countries of the world. North-west areas of the country have some facilities for irrigation, while the cultivators of other areas are not getting this facility. Some irrigation facilities through deep and shallow tube-wells, pump machines etc. are being provided. The areas with irrigation facilities yielded  more production. 
8. Diminishing Fertility of Soil: This is not scientific to produce same crop again and again in the same land. This concept of the experts has been proved true. Fertility of land is also grandly decreasing day by day for not using required volume of manure and chemical fertilizer. Illiterate cultivators of our country mean application of chemical fertilizer only. Repeated application of this kind of fertilizer results in decreasing fertility of soil.
9. Damage by Pests: Natural calamity is a regular feature in Bangladesh. Our agriculture largely depends on the vagaries of nature. Natural calamities like flood, drought, excessive rainfall, pests etc. damage huge crops every year. Sometimes crops are safely harvested. The cultivators fail to produce expected crops every year. 
10. Natural Calamities: Damage of crops by excessive rainfall, drought, flood and other reason is not a new problem in our country. The cultivators do not feel secured until crops are safely harvested. The cultivators fail to produce expected crops every year.
11. Absence of proper Marketing System: Lack of proper marketing system of agriculture produces is another impediment. Undeveloped means of communication and inadequate number of motor vehicles hamper proper transportation of products from one place to another. As a result, the producers have to sell their commodities at lower prices.
12. Influence of the Mahajans and the Small Trader: The loan recipient cultivators are compelled to sell their commodities to the village ‘mahajans’ at lower prices to repay their loan. The poor cultivators thus are deprived of fair prices of their products for want of necessary storage facilities and also pressure of repaying loan from the moneylenders. 
13. Salinity of Water: This is a common problem for the southern part of Bangladesh. Saline seawater at the time of tide flows to plain croplands through different rivers and canals and thus makes the adjacent lands infertile. 
14. Unplanned Production: Unplanned production originates from illiteracy as well as improper education. Increased price of a particular commodity in a particular period induces the cultivators to produce more of that commodity in subsequent year and as a result of increased volume of production and supply, the price of that commodity falls. In this situation, the producers cannot even meet the cost of production with the sale proceeds of the crops.
15. Undeveloped Means of Communication: It is necessary to further develop the means of communication from rural villages to Thana sadars, districts, port cities and capital city. Our village areas still lack in developed communication for boosting up export and import. This situation forces the small and marginal farmers to sell their products in the respective local markets and as such they do not get fair and reasonable prices. 

What are the Characteristics of Rural Community

Sanderson told about rural community that” A rural community consists of people living on dispersed farmsteads and in a hamlet or village which farms the center of their common activities”

Kolb and Burner “Population contain with 250 to 2500 and a hamlet as a smaller generation”

Characteristics of Rural Community 

1. Social Homogeneity: Unity and uniformity in rural society are largely visible. They are similar in their wage of thinking behaving action and living. We also find similarity in habits opinions customs, religious beliefs and dress. 
2. Dominance of Primary Relation: There exit face to face relation among people. The relationships are informal and personal. Community spread prevails over individual interest. A sense of belonging to the community holds them together.
3. Informal Social Control: Law, legislation, police, court and there importance in rural society is very low. Customs, traditions, group, standard beliefs exits in rural society as a informal social control.
4. Occupation: Agriculture pottering, spelling, weaving, carpeting.
5. Importance of Family: People are banded by family custom and tradition. The rural family is mostly extended family. Status of the individual is derived from the family. Marriages, religion, occupation, modes of living are all influenced by the tradition of the family. (Ascribed family status).  
6. Role of Neighborhood: Louish Writh told that an area in which the residence are personally acquainted with each other and are in the area of visiting one another of exchanging article and services and in general of doing things together. In village the neighborhood is of a great importance. They share the joys and sorrows together.
7. Faith in Religion: The Rural people are mostly religious but there exist some kind of superstition, convictism and fundamentalism. 

Theory of Religion by Emile Durkheim’s

Emile Durkheim’s last major book “The Elementary Forms of Religious Life” 1912 is often regarded as the most profound and the most original of these works. Religion is the ultimate non-material social fact and an examination of it allowed him to shed new light on this entire aspect of this theoretical system.

Durkheim thought that the model for the relationship between people and the supernatural was the relationship between the individual and the community. He is famous for suggesting that “God is society, writ large”. He believed that people ordered the physical world, the supernatural world, and the social world according to similar principles. 

His definition of religion favored by anthropologists of religion today was “A religion is a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things, i.e. things set apart and forbidden beliefs and practices which unite in one single moral community called a church, all those who adhere to them. Durkheim had two purposes for this study

1. To identify the social origin of religion as he felt that religion was a source of camaraderie and solidarity.
2. To identify links between certain religions in different cultures finding a common denominator. 

The major sources of his data were to study religion within a primitive setting for several reasons. There are given below

1. It is much easier to gain insight into the essential nature of religion in a primitive setting than in a more modern society.
2. Primitive religion ideological systems are less well developed than those of modern religions, with the result that there is less obfuscation.
3. Whereas religion in modern society takes diverse forms, in primitive society there is “intellectual and moral conformity” 

Function 

Durkheim condensed religion into 4 major functions

1. Disciplinary: Forcing or administrating discipline.
2. Cohesive: Bringing people together, a strong band.
3. Vitalizing: To make more lively or vigorous, vitalize, and boost the spirit. 
4. Euphoric: A good feeling, of happiness, confidence, and well-being.

Durkheim believes that “Society has to be present within the individual. He saw religion as a mechanism that shored up or protected a threatened social order. He thought that religion had the element of society in the past but that the collapse of religion would not lead to a moral implosion. He was specifically interested in religion as a communal experience rather than an individual one. He also says that religious phenomena occur when a separation is made between the proofer and the sacred.  

Sacred and Profane

The ultimate question for Durkheim was the source of modern religion. Because specialization and the ideological smoke serum make it impossible to study directly the roots of religion in modern society. Durkheim addressed the issue in the context of primitive society. The question is where primitive and modern religion comes from operating from his basic methodological position that only one social fact causes another social fact. Durkheim concluded that society is the source of all religion. 

According to Durkheim, the essence of religion is a division of the world into two kinds of phenomena----

• Sacred: Sacred refers to things human beings set apart, including religious beliefs, rites, deities, or anything socially defined as requiring special religious treatment. Participation in the sacred order, such as in rituals or ceremonies, gives a special prestige, illustrating one of the social functions of religion. Durkheim wrote: The sacred thing is parred excellence that which the profane should not touch and cannot touch with impunity”
• Profane: Profane is the reverse of the sacred “The circle of sacred objects”, continued Durkheim, cannot be determined once and for all. Its existence varies infinitely, according to the different religions.

Three differences between the sacred the profane and the elevation of some aspects of social life to the sacred level are necessary but not sufficient conditions for the development of religion. Their other conditions are needed.  

First: There must be the development of a set of beliefs. These beliefs are “the representations which express the nature of sacred things and the relations which they sustain, either with each other or with profane things.

Second: A set of religious rites is necessary. These are “the rules of conduct which prescribe how a man should comport himself in the presence of these sacred objects”

Third: A religion requires a church or a single overarching moral community. The interrelationship among the sacred, beliefs, rites, and church led Durkheim to the following definition of a religion: “A religion is a unified system of beliefs and practices which unite into one single moral community called a church, all those who adhere to them” (1912/1965:62).

Totemism: Durkheims view that society is the source of religion shaped his examination of Totemism in the Australian Arena. Totemism is a religious system in which certain things, particularly animals and plants come to be regarded as sacred and as emblems of the clan. Durkheim views terms as the simple, most primitive form of religion. It is parallel by a similarly primitive form of social organization, the clan. If Durkheim could have shown that the clan is the source of Totemism, he could have demonstrated his argument that society is at the root of religion.

According to Durkheim: “The essence of Totemism is the worship of an impersonal anonymous force at once immanent and transcendent. This anonymous, diffuse force which is superior to men and very close to them is, in reality, society itself” 

Although a clan may have a large number of totems, Durkheim was not inclined to view these as a series of separate, fragmentary beliefs about specific animals or plants. Instead, he tended to view them as an interrelated set of ideas that give the clan a more or less compute repressive of the world. The plant or animal is not the source of Totemism, it merely represents that source. The totems are the material representation of the immaterial force that is at their base. And that immaterial force is none other than the familiar collective conscience of society.

Totemism, and more generally religion is derived from the collective morality and becomes itself an impersonal force. It is not simply a series of mythical animals, plants, personalities, spirituals or gods. 

Collective Effervescence 

Collective Effervescence is the source of religion. In Durkheim's view, it comes from only one source-society. In the primitive case examined by Durkheim, this meant that the clear is the ultimate source of religion. Although we may agree that the clan is the source of Totemism, the question remains: How does the clan create Totemism? The answer lies in a central but little-discussed component of Durkheim's conceptual arsenal –collective Effervescence.

The notion of collective effervescence is not well spelled out in any of Durkheim’s works, including the elementary forms of Religious life. He seemed to have in mind, in a general sense, the great moments in history when a collectivity is able to achieve a new and heightened level of collective exaltation that in turn can lead to great changes in the structure of society. The Reformation and the Renaissance would be examples of historical periods when collective effervescence had a marked effect on the structure of society. During periods of collective effervescence, the clan members create Totemism. 

In sum, Totemism is the symbolic representation of the collective conscience, and the collective conscience, in turn, is derived from society. Therefore, society is the source of the collective commences religion, the concept of God, and ultimately everything that is sacred. In a very real sense, we can argue that the sacred and society are one and the same. This is fairly clear-cut in primitive society. It remains the today even though the relationship is greatly obscured by the complexities of modern society. 

What is Patron's Clint Relationship?

Rural economy mostly based on land. Most of the rural power, income earning classes sells their land to the buyers. Between these two classes their develops a special relationship which is known as patron clint relationship. Most often sellers and buyers are close neighbors on relatives also. In very many case the many standard type of relationship is of a patron clint type. Listed below as a limited set of factors which are crucial for the emergence of these patron client relationships.

1. Multiple inheritance system wills many heirs to one estate.
2. Individual property right to loan.
3. Scarcity of land and unequal distribution of land.
4. Scarcity of employment and other sources of livelihood.
5. Need for political and physical protection.
6. Look of access to resources mode available by government for the rural areas

Above various economic and political factors which contribute to make people for establishing patron client relationships in their daily struggle for survival.

Patron client relationships imply a difference of rank between people. When people meet for the first time they commonly attempt to establish relative rank. The basis on which, they established line, age, education and age difference. 

The person who in accorded the higher rank has the right to expect respected behavior. Respected behavior is expressed and ritualized in many ways. There are elaborate rules, developed during centuries of what constitute polite and proper behavior towards a person who both practices agree to, in accorded the higher state.

Patron Client: To analysis rural power structure patron client relationship is necessary. English word ‘patron’ comes from Spanish word “Patron” that means powerful, command post people may be patron. Patron help them who is weak than him. This helps provide any one’s working facility, any entrepreneurship on intuitions. Therefore, it may be provide religious support. The saint Muslim is provided these types of help. And for this they get material elements, loyalty and political support or other help. This patron client relationship may be written or viva contact. In Bangladesh this type of relation is primitive but in feudal society it is very popular (Europe, Japan).

Patron client relationship spread that type of society where inequality economic resource, political power distribute inequality. 

Emile Durkheim’s Division of Labor

The division of labor was a material social fact to Durkheim, because it is the pattern of interaction in the social world. He focused on the division of labor and examined how it differed in tradition societies and modern societies. It involves the degree to which task or responsibilities. People in primitive societies tend to occupy very general position in which they perform a wide variety of task and handle a large number of responsibilities. Those who live in more modern societies occupied more specialized position and have a much narrower range of task and responsibilities.

The change in the division of labor had enormous implication for the structure of society and some of the more important implication is reflected in the difference between two types of solidarity- Mechanical Solidarity and Organic Solidarity.

Social solidarity was developed in his first book “The division of labor in society”. Durkheim’s theory of solidarity is the collective conscience which is the sum total of beliefs and sentiments common to the average members of society and forming a system in its own rights.

Durkheim identified two forms of solidarity 

1. Society based on mechanical solidarity.
2. Society based on organic solidarity.

Mechanical Solidarity 

Mechanical solidarity is solidarity of resemblance. The major characteristics of a society is that individuals from one another as little as possible. The individuals, the members of the same collective resemble each other because they feel the same values and hold the same thing sacred. The society is coherent because the individuals are not yet differentiated. 

A society characterized by mechanical solidarity is unified because all people are generalists. The bond among people is that they are all engaged in similar activities and have similar responsibility for example; primitive society is based on mechanical solidarity. Durkheim emphasized the following points

1. Differentiation of the ‘society based on solidarity that is an elementary stage. It is mainly based on age and sex.
2. It has simple division of function.
3. All the members are alike.
4. The members have a kin sense of collective conscious and obedience.
5. It has repressive basis.

Organic Solidarity

Organic solidarity is one in which consensus or the coherent unity or collectivity results from or is expressed by differentiation. The individuals are no longer similar but different and in a curtain sense.

The part of living organism do not resemble each other, the organs a living creature each performs a function and it is precisely because each organ has its own function, because that heart and the lungs are altogether different from the brain that they are equally indispensable to life. 

Organic solidarity has some characteristics. This are---

1. The complex process of differentiation. 
2. Increase interdependence among the individuals and the various parts of the society.
3. Increase in division of labor and development of various trade and profession.
4. Civic and reestablishing restitutive laws.

Causes of Division of Labor

Durkheim though the division of labor was a material social fact which has two main causes

1. Increase in density of population.
2. Increase in moral density of population.

This concept refers to the number of people in a society and the amount of interaction that occurs among them. An increase in number of people and an increase in the interaction among them led to the change from mechanical to organic solidarity.

Social Factors of Division of Labor

Durkheim insists that division of labor, a social phenomenon, can be explained in terms of three social factors.

1. Volume: The volume of the society refers to the size of the population.
2. Material Density: material density refers to the number of the individuals on a given ground surface.
3. The Moral Density of the Society: Moral density means the intensity of communication between individuals.

Aspects of Division of Labor

Durkheim claimed about two aspect of division of labor

A. Demographic: Demography is related to population diversification.

B. Moral: It is more internal process of human being.

The result of increasing division of labor according to Durkheim is that individual consciousness emerges distinct from collective consciousness often finding itself in conflict with collective consciousness.  The rapid change in society due to increasing division of labor thus produce a state of constitution with regard to norms and increasing impersonal in social life, leading to relative normlessness.

Criticism

•  Different social thinkers think that the thought as pathological local thought.
• Other thought that it is conservative.
• Some Marxian theorists thought that the theory is against Marxists theory.

What is social class? Describe the class structure-patterns of rural classes.

Social class is a principal type of social stratification found especially in the modern civilized countries. If the caste system is found to be unique to India, this class is universal.

Social class

The word ‘class’ is sometimes used to represent groups of professors, artist, engineers, doctors, students etc. The word ‘class’ is also used to refer the quality of the things whether good, better, best and so on. But the concept ‘social class’ is more used in sociology that representing a kind of social stratification than anything else.

Definition 

Some definitions cornering social class are mention below

According to Ogburn and Nimkoff “A social class is the aggregate of persons having essentially the same social status in a given society”

According to Max Weber “Social classes a aggregates at individuals who have the same opportunities of acquiring goods, the same exhibited stand of living.’

Characteristics of Social Class

 Class is a status group.

 Class has achieved status not ascribed status.

 The class system is universal.

 Social class is an open group.

 Mode of felling and living

 Class consciousness.

Thus it is clear that social class is a segment of society with all the members of all the ages and both the sexes who share the same general status. As MacIver says- where social interiors is limited by the consideration of social status by distinction between higher and lower, there exists a social class. 

Class structure patterns of rural classes

Illustrations of the class system are to be found in various societies in the World. 

General classification on the basis of occupation 

 Upper Class

 Administrative people.

 Middle class

 Petty/cultivators.

 Lower class

 Working class.

For instance, the class system of the U.S.A is said to contains the general classes

 Lower-Upper Class-1.5%

 Upper-Middle Class-10%

 Lower-Middle class-28%

 Upper –Lower Class-34%

 Lower-Lower Class-25%

[Ref: Biesanz, 1904. P. 193]

Structural Classification 

On the basis on structure there are 4 classes

i. Land owner/ land lord class.

       Superior position.

ii. Cultivator class

       Peasant/farmer/tenant class

iii. Merchant Class

       Caller 

iv. Other Classes

       Goldsmiths/ Washes men  

Hindu Class Structure

There are 4 types:

1. Brahmin- Teaching and Worshipping.

2. Kshatriya- Warriors 

3. Vaisha - Traders 

4. Sudra – Producer or Working class

There are also 4 types of class

1. White man – Moghul 

2. Pathans – Solider 

3. Sheikh- Learned man.

4. Sacred / sayed

Father illustrations of class system in society are to be find in Latin –American Countries and in some near-east Asian societies which have a fivefold classification:-

1. The Elite 

2. Moderate size, land holder;

3. Non-agricultural society;

4. Small land operations

5. The ordinary fellahin.

In the U.S.S.R., “Classless Society” actually contains of the following major classes identified in 1950 by Alex Inkeles-

 The ruling elites

 The Superior intelligentsia.

 The general intelligentsia.

 The White colour group.

Working class was also differentiated into

 The working class aristocracy 

 The rank and file workers

 The disadvantaged workers.

And, the present in rural areas although relatively homogeneous was also sub-divided into distinguished groups:

 The well-to-do peasants

 The average peasant 

[Inkeley, 1950, quoted in Chinoy, P-186]